The Challenges and Opportunities Facing HBCUs

Historically black colleges and universities, or HBCUs, encompass a wide range of institutions of higher learning. There are currently 101 HBCUs in the United States, and they range from two-year community colleges to research universities that grant doctoral degrees. Most of the schools were founded shortly after the Civil War in an effort to provide African Americans access to higher education. What Is a Historically Black College or University? HBCUs exist because of the United States history of exclusion, segregation, and racism. With the end of slavery following the Civil War, African American citizens faced numerous challenges gaining access to higher education. Financial barriers and admissions policies made attendance at many colleges and universities nearly impossible for the majority of African Americans. As a result, both federal legislation and the efforts of church organizations worked to create institutions of higher learning that would provide access to African American students. The great majority of HBCUs were founded between the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the end of the 19th century. That said, Lincoln University (1854) and Cheyney University (1837), both in Pennsylvania, were established well before the end of slavery. Other HBCUs such as Norfolk State University (1935) and Xavier University of Louisiana (1915) were founded in the 20th century. The colleges and universities are called historically black because ever since the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s, HBCUs have been open to all applicants and have worked to diversify their student bodies. While many HBCUs still have predominantly black student populations, others do not. For example, Bluefield State College is 86% white and just 8% black. Kentucky State Universitys student population is roughly half African American.  However, it is more common for an HBCU to have a student body that is well over 90% black. Examples of Historically Black Colleges and Universities HBCUs are as diverse as the students who attend them. Some are public while others are private. Some are small liberal arts colleges while others are large research universities. Some are secular, and some are affiliated with a church. Youll find HBCUs that have a majority white student population while most have large African American enrollments. Some HBCUs offer doctoral programs, while some are two-year schools offering associate degrees. Below are a few examples that capture the range of HBCUs: Simmons College of Kentucky is a tiny college of just 203 students with ties to the American Baptist Church. The student population is 100% African American.North Carolina AT is a relatively large public university with over 11,000 students. Along with robust bachelor degree programs ranging from the arts to engineering, the school also has numerous masters and doctoral programs.Lawson State Community College in Birmingham, Alabama, is a two-year community college offering certificate programs and associate degrees in areas such as engineering technology, health professions, and business.Xavier University of Louisiana  is a private Roman Catholic university with 3,000 students enrolled in bachelor, masters and doctoral programs.Tougaloo College in Mississippi is a private liberal arts college of 860 students. The college is affiliated with the United Church of Christ, although it describes itself as church-related but not church controlled. Challenges Facing Historically Black Colleges and Universities As a result of  affirmative action, civil rights legislation, and changing attitudes towards race, colleges, and universities across the United States are actively working to enroll qualified African American students. This access to educational opportunities across the country is obviously a good thing, but it has had consequences for HBCUs. Even though there are over 100 HBCUs in the country, less than 10% of all African American college students actually attend an HBCU. Some HBCUs are struggling to enroll enough students, and roughly 20 colleges have closed in the last 80 years. More are likely to close in the future because of enrollment declines and fiscal crises. Many HBCUs also face challenges with retention and persistence. The mission of many HBCUs—to provide access to higher education to populations that have historically been  underrepresented  and disadvantaged—creates its own hurdles. While it is clearly worthwhile and admirable to provide opportunities for students, the results can be discouraging when a significant percentage of matriculated students are ill-prepared to succeed in college-level coursework. Texas Southern University, for example, has just a 6% four-year graduation rate, Southern University in New Orleans has a 5% rate, and numbers in the low teens and single digits are not unusual. The Best HCBUs While the challenges facing many HCBUs are significant, some schools are flourishing. Spelman College  (a womens college) and Howard University tend to top the national rankings of HCBUs. Spelman, in fact, has the highest graduation rate of any Historically Black College, and it also tends to win high marks for social mobility. Howard is a prestigious research university that grants hundreds of doctoral degrees every year. Other notable Historically Black Colleges and Universities include Morehouse College (a mens college), Hampton University, Florida AM, Claflin University, and Tuskegee University. Youll find impressive academic programs and rich co-curricular opportunities at these schools, and youll also find that the overall value tends to be high.

The Assessment Of Rural Nursing - 2138 Words

Rural Nursing in Bowen This essay will discuss how and why Bowen is classified on the Accessibility/Remoteness index as a rural town in Queensland, Australia according to Smith, (2007. A profile of Bowen including the demographics, geographics, environmental and cultural characteristics of the small town will be explored. The health of the population will be looked at and how the profile of Bowen relates directly to the health impacts of Bowen’s residents. Employment and related health issues will be explored along with the added health concerns due to the tropical climate. Following this I will discuss the nursing theories and how they relate to the Registered Nurse in a rural town. Models of Care will be explored next with main focus on The Patient Centred Care approach which is significant to Bowen. Furthermore, the role of the registered nurse and how they plan and manage their day to day activities along with the multi-disciplinary teams will be discussed. Specific knowledge that the registered nurse in Bowen requires and the clinical skills needed will be supported with nursing practice examples specific to Bowen. Lastly a personal reflection of how I believe my current skills and knowledge will be beneficial to me working as a student nurse in Bowen. I will provide examples of how I may apply these skills to practice. The Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia (ARIA) is used to define the rural or remoteness of a location within Australia, Bowen is categorisedShow MoreRelatedThe Seeds Of Nursing Should Be Planted Within The Heads, Hearts And Minds Of Youth Essay1340 Words   |  6 PagesAction Steps The seeds of nursing must be planted in the heads, hearts and minds of youth. Seeing one’s self as a nurse, or a reflection of who you are in a nurse role, is important as children develop ideas about what they want to be when they grow up. 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Identify two (2) control measures that fit under this â€Å"No Lift† approach and discuss how they reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries faced by nurses within Australia health care settings. Nurses today, are currently facing

A Bad Day in My Youth Free Essays

A Bad Day in my Youth When I was 11 years old, I was like all boys of this age; I loved to do what ever my parents forbade me to do. Now, I understand that they had a reason to warn me about many things. One of them was climbing places where children shouldn’t be. We will write a custom essay sample on A Bad Day in My Youth or any similar topic only for you Order Now I couldn’t resist climbing trees or buildings just like a monkey. It was a nice, summer day and we lived in Odessa, Ukraine. Ukraine buildings formed courtyards. My friend and I played in the yard. The yard was small with garages and a big tree in the back. We climbed everywhere we could: tree, the roofs of the garages and the attics. We were like adventurers; we tried to imagine being Indiana Jones the man from the movie I saw on TV. I was impressed by his adventures. We knew that no one would tell us to stop because our parents were shopping, that day, and we stated with my best friend’s grandmother. She was a chubby and pleasant woman, 78 or 79 years old, and couldn’t always see what we were doing. So we took advantage of that old woman who couldn’t really know what we were doing. When we climbed the tree; my friend accidentally stepped on my arm and I fell and broke my leg and right hand. At first, I didn’t feel anything because of shock, but then, severe pain pierced the broken bones. My friend’s grandmother called the ambulance. I was scared when, in the hospital, doctor put a cast on my leg and hand. I imagined what my mom was going to say, I was afraid that she would be angry but she wasn’t. She said â€Å"I told you a million times you shouldn’t play like this and that, one day, you would break neck. You are lucky that it’s not a broken neck. Please don’t play games like this anymore. † I understood that mom was right and was trying to warn and protect me; the result of my disobedience was a broken finiteness’s. I was in a leg cast for 6 months and had to be home-schooled. My arm was in a cast for 3 months, but now it’s fine. Now I always to do what my parents tell me to do, because I know that they want to do the best for me. They are older; they have life experience and they know what way is better. Once, I did what I wanted to do. I will not make this mistake, again. How to cite A Bad Day in My Youth, Papers

Forks over Knives documentary free essay sample

Obesity in the United States is taking its peak and the US government spends 2. 2 trillion dollars each year on health care, yet millions of people are dying every year due to high blood pressure, diabetes, cholesterol, and heart disease. In the movie Forks Over Knives, western diet, fast food, and dairy products are shown as unhealthy food for the people who have chronic diseases, and also for the people who are likely to get those diseases in future. People don’t have enough education on how to make a smart choice by eating healthy food. Plant based diets are good for the patient who has cancer and chronic diseases. Research supports this idea and proves it by disclosing that changing our diet to one that is plant based helps lower our risk of disease and increase our chance of survival without taking any medicines. The question remains that instead of government spending 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Forks over Knives documentary or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 2 trillion dollars each year, why wouldn’t our government just educate people on how to live a healthier lifestyle? The government must implement plant based diet by encouraging every doctor in the nation to start this treatment for their patients and by educating kids in high school. This will have an enormous effect on the government health care budget, it will save the government billion of dollars on drug industry and the government can used that money in implementing plant based diet program and producing fresh food across the country, so individual people won’t consume too much junk food and they would be in better shape. Ruth Heidrich was a marathon runner and she was diagnosed with breast cancer. Her doctor recommended chemotherapy and radiation to treat her cancer. A frozen section was done immediately; she was told it was invasive cancer, and it had spread throughout the whole breast, bones and one lung. After recovering from the surgery she saw a newspaper article about breast cancer and diet research study. She immediately decided to visit Dr. John McDougall. She was told by the doctor to change her diet to a plant based diet. She was told to eat lots of fruits and vegetables. After changing the diet her arthritis and constipation disappeared. She was more energetic and she finally reversed her cancer. She is now in her 70’s living a healthy life. We can all be motivated from her, we cannot change our diet to completely plant based but we can at least reduce our food intake of fried food and meat. This sets a good example to every patient in America and across the world, that if doctors encourage their patient to change their eating habit and also if the patient takes the responsibility they can reverse any diseases they have. When a patient hears that they have cancer they feel like it is the end of the world, because there is no way to cure this disease. It takes lot of money and luck to survive the cancer. There is only 1% survival rate for patient with breast cancer, and that’s with chemotherapy and radiation. This was very unusual for Ruth to reverse such a big cancer just by adjusting her diet. San’Dera Nation thirty-something was overweight, type two diabetic and hypertension patient. She was treated with expensive prescription drugs to lower her sugar level. When she met Dr. Esselstyne she was strictly told by him and his wife to change her diet to completely plant based. She stopped taking her diabetes medications after 3 weeks on the diet and within two months her diabetes and blood sugar level was down. This was the drastic change for Nation in just two months. Now she is completely living on a plant based diet and her entire family eats plant based diet, including her children. According to San’Dera Nation, plant based diet is cheaper than buying bulk of chicken and pork chops. A great lesson to be learn from San’Dera Nation that it is easy to change your diet if you make up your mind. This was unusual for Nation to reverse her diabetes just by eating fresh vegetables and fruits and that too without taking any medication. If the government can implement plant based diet many patient like Nation who have lost their hope in curing this disease can live a healthy life without any headache of taking medicines. Dr. Campbell’s experiment in China shows that there are fewer chances of people getting cancer and diabetes, because they eat plant based diet. In China, people only eat meat for the flavor; they eat more vegetables and soup. The results convinced Dr. Campbell that plant based diet helps to reduce chronic diseases. The government should take responsibility to educate people and they should educate kids in high school by providing a diet class that gives knowledge on how to live a healthier lifestyle. People in the United States have more liberty in choosing their diet than any other country, because people in the US have privilege. Fast food is very cheap in the US, so people from all income can afford to eat in restaurants like McDonald and Burger King. In the US, western diet is more popular, because of its demand and it serves faster. Based on the commissioner, department of public health, Terry Mason, said that â€Å"people are addicted to western diet, because it is salty and fried. † People are responsible for their own dietary action. The average Americans carries 23 extra pounds, 40% are obese and half of us are taking prescription drugs. According to CDC, every state in the United States has 20% or higher rate of obesity. The numbers speak for themselves. It is our responsibility to change our diet or otherwise be included in the statistics of the number of people who die in the United States every year due to chronic diseases. It will be tough for the people to change their diet completely to a plant based, but it is possible to reduce the amount of intake from dairy products and meat in our daily diet. In The New York Times article, â€Å"Unhappy Meals† Michael Pollan says, â€Å"Eat food. Mostly Plants. Not too much,† this is the most simple and powerful answer to the people across the United States to start thinking about their health and take responsibility of their diet. â€Å"Let food be thy medicine. † This quote reflects very well into our society. Instead of spending thousands of dollars in prescription drugs, wouldn’t it be nice to just change our eating habit slightly to cure our diseases. The research done by the Dr. Esselstyne and Dr. John McDougall on a plant based diet, and also the experiment conducted by Dr. Campbell in China suggest that American people should consider changing their diet towards a plant based diet in order to live longer. This is the responsibility of our government and citizens of this country to take a step further and reduce the western diet from our body and encourage ourselves to start eating a plant based diet, because it is a benefit to us and to the government. Based on the real life story of Ruth Heidrich and San’Dera Nation a plant based diet does help to cure chronic diseases. This change will have to take place in our society, because it is worth the effort we will live longer and our government won’t be spending trillions of dollar on health care budget. This trillions of dollar can be use to create jobs, helping doctors to implement plant based diet, and creating food industry that only serves fresh food to the public.

Drama Essay Example For Students

Drama Essay My first project in drama was to create a character in a family that was part of a soap opera. By the end of the project we had filmed a short film of the family, which was very successful. Each member of the family had their own individual character and background.  In the first few lessons we did work on developing both the final character and characterisation in general. To start with we took a random item from are bags. This could have been anything from a pencil to a water bottle. Using this item we decided who would have the item and words to describe this item. Without knowing it you had come up with a character. This method is very effective for deciding basic details about your character. After this initial exercise we had time to decide finally what are character would be. When I had done so I created a character biography. My biography set up a background for my character, her name, what she wanted in life etc. Doing this helped me develop the character as I knew more about her and was clear with how she would behave. Doing this meant that I could start the project knowing exactly how I would play the character. There were many aspects to my character that I liked and disliked. To start with I liked the fact that my character was quite weird however I did not like the fact that she did not fit into the family group as well as I would have liked. As the project went on quite the opposite happened, the character became quite dull and boring but began to fit into the family much better. Improvisation is performing something with little planning and no script. Doing improvisation as part of the project helped as you could get into the character and act and think like them on the spot instead of planning ahead what you are going to do. Improvisation helped me develop my character as I could both get used to playing the character and try out different ways of doing so. I could then get a better more refined character at the end of it. A form of improvisation is hot seating this is when somebody is questioned on the spot. They have to behave and answer as their character. When I was hot seated it helped me to act my character more naturally and to get more of a background to the character by answering the questions. I developed my characters voice, body, personally etc by picturing the character in my head. I imagined what sort of person they were this helped me have an idea about how they walked behaved etc. Before I was put with my family my character was very different to after she was put into the family group. When this happened her manner and her relationships with other people changed. When developing the specific parts of my character I tried out different ways. We did lots of exercises as a family I used this to find out what felt right and what worked best but also what I felt comfortable with. In my final piece at the end of the project my character had changed a lot. Instead of being loud and strange character she turned out quite and slightly normal. Although I do not feel that the final piece really portrayed my character as well as I would have liked. I was disappointed at how my character had changed. I wished that they had been more individual then how they had turned out to be. I felt that they blended into the background and I wished they had stood out more. During this project I have learnt some valuable things about character work. I have enjoyed working in large groups more than I thought I would do. When I do again I need to have more confidence and try and stand out more instead of letting other people take charge and do the work for me. Also when working in the family I have learnt that I need express my ideas better and once again dont let people do the work for me. At the end of the project we did a monologue this helped me develop the character. Unfortunately this happened after the project in the future doing something like this would help a lot in developing the character. This project overall has not been entirely successful but has provided me with a lot of useful ideas and experience for future work in developing character.

Freedom of Speech

Table of Contents Introduction Importance of freedom of speech Freedom of speech Limitations to freedom of speech Conclusion Works Cited Introduction Freedom of speech is the freedom that citizens are constitutionally granted by their country to allow the citizens to speak without limitations or censorship of what they say.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom of Speech specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This freedom varies from country to country depending on levels of democracy and political situations. Freedom of speech is always advocated for and governments urged to constitutionally protect their citizens’ freedom of speech to enable people discuss issues that affect them. There have also been views of negative effects of unmonitored freedom of speech calling for a balance between the freedom of speech and its limitations. This paper seeks to discuss freedom of speech. The paper will look at the human nature that necessitates speech and expression, freedom of speech as applied in different countries and limitations that freedom of speech faces. Importance of freedom of speech The nature of human beings to coexist with one another and developments that have led to democratic government systems have made speech and interactions fundamental elements in every society. Developments of government systems and establishment of democracies have played a role in enlisting the participation of citizens in government processes in order to uphold the already established democratic levels in societies. It is this need to retain or even further develop democratic systems that has in the past led to the fight for freedom of speech. The same reason still plays an important role in ensuring that provisions of freedom of speech are correctly implemented to take care of the intentions that were originally considered during formulations of such policies that governs freedom of speech. The natur e of human beings to interact and communicate with one another is another element that necessitates freedom of speech. Economic, political and even social aspects of life require an ultimate decision regarding a course of action to be taken regarding any particular issue. Matters that affect a large mass of people such as politics and national economic matters have been regarded as public aspects that are determined collectively (Mediainst 1).Advertising Looking for essay on constitutional law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Citizens therefore find it necessary to participate in such discussions pertaining to these public issues with the aim of checking and putting to task leaders and representatives to ensure that the interest of the people are looked into. Interactive forums also help people to be informed on current and developing issues in a society. Freedom of speech, therefore, allows for transfer of information that he lps different category of people in decision making. Effective decisions regarding election of political leaders, management of business activities and even personal and family decisions depends on information. Information about government economic policies and trends in a country will, for example, affect small scale business established in a given township. Freedom of speech and access to information is therefore critical to citizens in their daily lives (Mediainst 1). Freedom of speech Freedom of speech is an element that is occasionally protected by laws of various countries. In the United States, for example, freedom of speech is strictly protected by the country’s first amendment. According to the first amendment, freedom of speech is protected from manipulation by selfish individuals such as politicians who could be in power and intend to undermine criticisms from the general public. For this reason, the first amendment of the United States constitution provided protec tion of the freedom of speech from legislative institutions such as the congress. Freedom of speech has also been liberalized in the United States to include non verbal expressions, motions and symbols that includes dressing codes (Camp 1). Xinyi Wang explained the elements of the United States’ first amendment, which clearly, or as one would think it does, expresses the sanctity of freedom of speech in the United States. The constitution expressly states that the congress is prohibited from making legislations that would touch on the freedom of speech.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Freedom of Speech specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The first amendment also included other elements that are related to freedom of speech such as issues pertaining to the press and the fact that Americans were allowed to converge and share opinions in a peaceful manner and to stand and question their government in case the c itizens felt aggrieved by the government (Xinyi 1). In its application, freedom of speech protects subjects from liability to whatever they say, provided that the subject statements uttered by an individual are under the protection of freedom of speech as provided by a particular country. Freedom of speech enjoyed by legislators in their course of legislation for example protects them from any liability emanating from anything that the legislatures say while in their legislative process. The constitution of Canada for example provides that â€Å"no legislative councilor or member of the legislative assembly shall be liable to any action, arrest, or imprisonment, or damages† (Canadian constitution 69) as long as subject commission were undertaken in a process of conducting legislative duties in the premises for such duties (Canadian constitution 69). In Britain, legislatures are only protected from speech uttered in their process of legislation. A similar application of the fr eedom of speech is applicable to other citizens. Provisions are made by constitutions in different countries regarding freedoms that citizens are accorded with regard to speech and measures are then taken to ensure that subject to constitutional provisions, no citizens are held liable to any utterance that is made within constitutional provisions of freedom of speech (Canadian constitution 69). Limitations to freedom of speech Even though freedom of speech is expressly stated in a number of countries’ constitutions, and provisions made that freedom of speech shall be utterly protected by constitutions, a review of application of law by judicial systems reveals that constitutional provisions of freedom of speech have under certain circumstances been overridden by other factors.Advertising Looking for essay on constitutional law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More When freedom of speech is not applicable, for whatever legal reason, then it means that constitutional provisions on the freedom have limitations with respect to interpretation and application. In the United States, for example, matters such as: â€Å"national security, justice or personal safety-overrides freedom of speech† (Freedomforum 1). This means that an individual’s freedom of speech will be overlooked if any or all of these three issues are involved. A person whose speech threatens such issues like national security or infringes rights of other citizens might not be protected by freedom of speech. The judicial system in the United States has, for example, established over time that utterances that: poses a threat to causing danger or violence, undermine â€Å"social value† and â€Å"conflict with other legitimate social or government interests† (Freedomforum 1) are not protected by freedom of speech (Freedomforum 1). Limitations in the freedom of speech are also propagated by international bodies such as the United Nations. According to the United Nations resolution in its 1948 general assembly, it was agreed upon that as much as people had to be accorded freedom of expression, countries and states were not prevented from establishing measures that can possibly regulate parties in their process of disseminating information. It was resolved that freedom of speech and freedom of expression calls for a level of responsibility on the parts of citizens and entities and thus governments were not restricted by the resolution from â€Å"requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises† (Whitmore 1). The resolution at the United Nations assembly also stated that freedom of speech was subjected matters that are fundamental to â€Å"democratic society, interest of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for protection of health or morals† (Whitmore 1) among other factors. This resolution thus recognizes territorial sovereignty in legislations that limits freedom of speech of an individual when it is considered to undermine sensitive public issues (Whitmore 1). There are a number of limitations which have been imposed on freedom of speech within the United States. Obscenity has, for example, been expressly excluded from freedom of speech by the judicial system of the United States. Other limitations on freedom of speech and press in the United States include â€Å"child pornography, defamation, speech harmful to children, compelled speech† (Cohen 26) among others. The need for limitation of freedom of speech is also expressed by Sadurski Wojciech in an argument that â€Å"self fulfillment† should be accompanied by self-control (Sadurski 18). Freedom of speech is considered to bring satisfaction to individuals and for this reason, people must ensure that their freedom does not harm the fulfillment that other people wants to enjoy. Limitations are therefore necessary to ensure that every citizen enjoys his or her freedom (Sadurski 18). Conclusion Freedom of speech is important in a democratic nation and is internationally recognized and advocated for. It has been entrenched in a number of national constitutions and over time enhanced due to movements of human rights activists. The provision and protection of freedom of speech by national constitutions is however at the same time limited by the same constitutions subject to rights of other citizens and national interests. Works Cited Camp, Julie. Freedom of expression. California State University, 2005. Web. Canadian constitution. The Canadian constitution. Canada: UAP archive. Print. Cohen, Henry. Freedom of speech and press: exceptions to the first amendment. FAS, 2009. Web. Freedomforum. Education for freedom. Freedom Forum. Web. Mediainst. Importance of freedom of speech. Medianst. Web. Sadurski, Wojciech. Freedom of speech and its limits. New York, NY: Springer, 2001. Print. Whitmore Marc. Freedom of speech, restrictions on. Idebate Organization, 2009. Web. Xinyi, Wang. Freedom of speech in the United States constitution. Perspectives. Web. This essay on Freedom of Speech was written and submitted by user Alaya Bruce to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Manhattan Project1 essays

Manhattan Project1 essays On the morning of August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber named Enola Gay flew over the industrial city of Hiroshima, Japan and dropped the first atomic bomb ever. The city went up in flames caused by the immense power equal to about 20,000 tons of TNT. The project was a success. They were an unprecedented assemblage of civilian, and military scientific brain power-brilliant, intense, and young, the people that helped develop the bomb. Unknowingly they came to an isolated mountain setting, known as Los Alamos, New Mexico, to design and build the bomb that would end World War 2, but begin serious controversies concerning its sheer power and destruction. I became interested in this topic because of my interest in science and history. It seemed an appropriate topic because I am presently studying World War 2 in my Social Studies Class. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings were always taught to me with some opinion, and I always wanted to know the bomb itself and the unbiased effects! that it had. This I-search was a great opportunity for me to actually fulfill my interest. The Manhattan Project was the code name for the US effort during World War II to produce the atomic bomb. It was appropriately named for the Manhattan Engineer District of the US Army Corps of Engineers, because much of the early research was done in New York City (Badash 238). Sparked by refugee physicists in the United States, the program was slowly organized after nuclear fission was discovered by German scientists in 1938, and many US scientists expressed the fear that Hitler would attempt to build a fission bomb. Frustrated with the idea that Germany might produce an atomic bomb first, Leo Szilard and other scientists asked Albert Einstein, a famous scientist during that time, to use his influence and write a letter to president FDR, pleading for support to further research the power of nuclear fission (Badash 237). His letters were a success, and President Roosevelt establ...